- A resource is anything in our environment that is technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally acceptable and can satisfy our needs — resources are not free gifts of nature, they are a function of human activity.
- Resources are classified four ways: by origin (biotic/abiotic), exhaustibility (renewable/non-renewable), ownership (individual/community/national/international) and status of development (potential/developed/stock/reserves).
- Resource planning is the judicious, balanced use of resources; India began it with the First Five Year Plan. Sustainable development = development that does not damage the environment or harm future generations (Rio Earth Summit 1992, Agenda 21).
- Land is a finite natural resource: ~43% plains, ~30% mountains, ~27% plateaus. Land degradation comes from deforestation, overgrazing, mining and over-irrigation.
- India has six major soil types — alluvial, black (regur), red & yellow, laterite, arid and forest — each with its own region, fertility and crops.
- Board weightage: ~4 marks/year — usually soil-type questions, land-use, land degradation causes and soil-conservation methods.
1. What is a resource?
Everything available in our environment that can be used to satisfy our needs is a resource — provided it is (i) technologically accessible (we have the technology to use it), (ii) economically feasible (worth the cost) and (iii) culturally acceptable (society agrees to use it). Coal underground is only a resource once we can mine and burn it usefully.
Resources are not free gifts of nature, as many assume. They are a function of human activity: human beings transform raw materials in the environment into useful resources. The process involves an interactive, interdependent relationship between nature, technology and institutions (Fig. 1.1). Humans interact with nature through technology and create institutions to speed up economic development — so human beings are themselves an essential component of resources.
2. Classification of resources
Resources are grouped in four ways:
(b) On the basis of exhaustibility: Renewable (can be renewed/reproduced — solar, wind, water, forests, wildlife; further split into continuous/flow like wind & water and biological like forests & wildlife) and Non-renewable (take millions of years to form — minerals, fossil fuels; some are recyclable e.g. metals, others non-recyclable e.g. fossil fuels).
(c) On the basis of ownership: Individual (privately owned — a farmer's plot, a house), Community (open to all members — village ponds, public parks, grazing grounds), National (belong to the nation — minerals, water, land within political boundaries plus territorial waters up to 12 nautical miles) and International (regulated by global institutions — oceanic resources beyond 200 nautical miles of the Exclusive Economic Zone).
(d) On the basis of status of development: Potential (exist but not yet used — solar & wind in Rajasthan & Gujarat), Developed (surveyed and being used), Stock (materials we lack the technology to use yet — hydrogen & oxygen in water as a future energy source) and Reserves (part of the stock we can use with current technology but have kept for the future — water in dams, forests).
3. Development of resources — and its problems
Resources are vital for human survival and for maintaining quality of life. Because they were wrongly believed to be free gifts of nature, humans used them indiscriminately, which led to three major problems:
- Depletion of resources to satisfy the greed of a few individuals.
- Accumulation of resources in few hands, dividing society into the haves and the have-nots (rich and poor).
- Indiscriminate exploitation, causing global ecological crises — global warming, ozone layer depletion, environmental pollution and land degradation.
So an equitable distribution of resources is essential for a sustained quality of life and global peace. If the present trend of depletion continues, the future of the planet is in danger — which is why resource planning is essential for the sustainable existence of all life.
4. Sustainable development, the Rio Summit and Agenda 21
Sustainable development means development should take place without damaging the environment, and development in the present should not compromise the needs of future generations.
Club of Rome (advocated resource conservation for the first time at the international level) → Schumacher's Small is Beautiful (1974, Gandhian philosophy) → Brundtland Commission Report Our Common Future (1987, introduced the term "Sustainable Development") → Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992.
At the Rio Earth Summit (June 1992), over 100 heads of state met in Brazil for the first International Earth Summit to address environmental protection and socio-economic development. Leaders signed the Declaration on Global Climatic Change and Biological Diversity, endorsed the Forest Principles, and adopted Agenda 21.
Agenda 21 is the declaration signed at the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED). It aims at global sustainable development by combating environmental damage, poverty and disease through global co-operation. A major objective: every local government should draw its own local Agenda 21.
Gandhiji on conservation: "There is enough for everybody's need and not for anybody's greed." He blamed the greedy, selfish individuals and exploitative modern technology for resource depletion, and was against mass production, wanting production by the masses instead.
5. Resource planning in India
Resource planning is the widely accepted strategy for the judicious (wise) use of resources. It is especially important for India because resources are unevenly distributed:
Resource planning in India is a three-step process:
- Step 1: Identification and inventory of resources — surveying, mapping and qualitative & quantitative estimation across regions.
- Step 2: Evolving a planning structure with the appropriate technology, skill and institutional set-up to implement plans.
- Step 3: Matching resource development plans with overall national development plans.
India started this from the First Five Year Plan (launched after Independence). Importantly, mere availability of resources is not enough — without matching technological development and institutional change, resources cannot be used. History shows rich-resource colonies were exploited precisely because the colonisers had higher technology. So in India development depends on availability of resources plus technology, quality of human resources and the historical experiences of the people.
6. Land resources — relief features
We live, work and grow food on land; it supports natural vegetation, wildlife, human life, transport and communication. But land is an asset of finite magnitude, so it must be used with careful planning. India has land under varied relief features:
Mountains — about 30%; ensure perennial flow of rivers, provide tourism and ecological value.
Plateaus — about 27%; possess rich reserves of minerals, fossil fuels and forests.
7. Land utilisation and land-use pattern
Land in India is put to the following uses (categories):
- Forests.
- Land not available for cultivation: (a) barren & waste land, (b) land put to non-agricultural uses — buildings, roads, factories.
- Other uncultivated land (excluding fallow): (a) permanent pastures & grazing land, (b) land under miscellaneous tree crops & groves, (c) culturable waste land (left uncultivated for more than 5 agricultural years).
- Fallow lands: (a) current fallow (left uncultivated for one or less than one agricultural year), (b) other than current fallow (left uncultivated 1 to 5 years).
- Net sown area (NSA): the physical extent of land on which crops are sown and harvested. Area sown more than once a year + NSA = gross cropped area.
Facts to remember: India's total geographical area is 3.28 million sq km, but land-use data is available for only about 93% (north-east states except Assam, and parts of J&K, are not fully reported/surveyed). The pattern of NSA varies widely — over 80% in Punjab & Haryana, but less than 10% in Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
India's forest area is far below the desired 33% set by the National Forest Policy (1952), and has increased only marginally since 1960-61. Reasons: pressure of a rising population and demand for cultivable land, settlements, roads and industry have kept forest cover low — land has shifted mainly into net sown area.
8. Land degradation and conservation measures
95% of our basic needs for food, shelter and clothing come from land. Continuous use of land over a long period without proper care — together with human activities — has caused land degradation (loss of land's productive capacity), with serious repercussions for society and the environment.
• Deforestation due to mining — Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha (deep scars left after excavation).
• Overgrazing — Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra.
• Over-irrigation — Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh (causes water-logging → salinity & alkalinity in soil).
• Mineral processing dust (cement grinding, calcite/soapstone for ceramics) retards water infiltration; industrial effluents pollute land and water.
- Afforestation and proper management of grazing.
- Planting shelter belts of plants and controlling overgrazing.
- Stabilisation of sand dunes by growing thorny bushes (arid areas).
- Proper management of waste lands and control of mining activities.
- Proper discharge and disposal of industrial effluents and wastes after treatment (industrial & suburban areas).
9. Soil as a resource — formation and profile
Soil is the most important renewable natural resource — the medium of plant growth and a living system. It takes millions of years to form soil up to just a few cm in depth. Factors of soil formation: relief, parent rock (bed rock), climate, vegetation, other life-forms and time; natural forces like temperature change, running water, wind, glaciers and decomposers all contribute. Soil contains both organic (humus) and inorganic materials.
1. Top soil — the upper soil layer (richest in humus).
2. Subsoil — weathered rocks, sand and silt-clay.
3. Substratum — weathered parent rock material.
4. Unweathered parent bed rock.
10. Major soil types of India
On the basis of formation factors, colour, thickness, texture, age and properties, India's soils are classified into six major types. Learn the region, features and crops of each.
| Soil | Where found | Key features | Crops |
|---|---|---|---|
| Alluvial (most widespread & important) | Whole northern plains (deposited by Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra); also Rajasthan, Gujarat, eastern coastal deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri | Made of sand, silt & clay. Old alluvium = Bangar (more kanker nodules); new alluvium = Khadar (finer, more fertile). Rich in potash, phosphoric acid and lime; very fertile, intensively cultivated, densely populated | Sugarcane, paddy, wheat, cereals, pulses |
| Black (regur / black cotton soil) | Deccan trap (Basalt) region — Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh; along Godavari & Krishna valleys | Made of fine clayey material; holds moisture well; rich in calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash, lime; poor in phosphorus; develops deep cracks in hot weather (good aeration). Hard to plough unless tilled after first shower | Cotton (ideal), also other crops |
| Red and Yellow | Crystalline igneous rocks of low-rainfall eastern & southern Deccan plateau; parts of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern middle Ganga plain, piedmont of Western Ghats | Red due to diffusion of iron in crystalline/metamorphic rocks; looks yellow when hydrated | General cultivation after treatment |
| Laterite | Tropical & subtropical climate with alternate wet & dry seasons; southern states, Western Ghats of Maharashtra, Odisha, parts of West Bengal & the North-East | From Latin later = brick. Result of intense leaching due to heavy rain; acidic (pH < 6.0); deficient in plant nutrients; humus-rich under forest, humus-poor under sparse vegetation; prone to erosion | Tea & coffee (Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu); cashew nut (red laterite in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala) |
| Arid | Western Rajasthan & dry regions | Red to brown, sandy and saline; high salt content; low humus & moisture (dry climate, fast evaporation); kankar layer below restricts water infiltration; cultivable after irrigation | Cultivable after proper irrigation |
| Forest (mountain) | Hilly & mountainous areas with rainforests | Texture varies: loamy & silty in valleys, coarse-grained on upper slopes; acidic with low humus in snow-covered Himalayan areas; fertile in lower valleys, river terraces & alluvial fans | Varies by region |
11. Soil erosion and soil conservation
Soil erosion is the denudation (removal) of the soil cover and its washing/blowing away. Normally soil formation and erosion balance each other, but human activities — deforestation, overgrazing, construction, mining — and natural forces (wind, water, glaciers) upset this balance.
• Gully erosion — running water cuts deep channels (gullies) in clayey soil; land becomes unfit for cultivation, called bad land; in the Chambal basin such lands are called ravines.
• Sheet erosion — water flows as a sheet over a slope, washing away the topsoil.
• Wind erosion — wind blows away loose soil from flat/sloping land.
• Defective farming — ploughing up and down the slope creates channels for fast water flow.
- Contour ploughing — ploughing along contour lines decelerates water flow down slopes.
- Terrace cultivation — cutting steps on slopes restricts erosion (well developed in the Western & Central Himalayas).
- Strip cropping — dividing large fields into strips with grass strips between crops to break the force of the wind.
- Shelter belts — planting lines/rows of trees; they stabilise sand dunes and the desert in western India.
12. NCERT Exercise — Q1 Multiple choice (solved)
(i) Main cause of land degradation in Punjab? → (c) Over irrigation — it causes water-logging, raising salinity and alkalinity.
(ii) In which state is terrace cultivation practised? → (d) Uttarakhand — the hilly, sloping Himalayan terrain.
(iii) In which state is black soil predominantly found? → (b) Maharashtra — part of the Deccan trap region.
13. NCERT Exercise — Q2 Short answers (~30 words)
(i) Three states having black soil and the crop mainly grown in it. Black (regur) soil is found in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat (also Chhattisgarh, Saurashtra, Malwa). The main crop is cotton, so it is called black cotton soil.
(ii) Soil in the river deltas of the eastern coast & three features. It is alluvial soil (deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri). Features: (1) made of sand, silt and clay; (2) very fertile, rich in potash, phosphoric acid and lime; (3) ideal for paddy, wheat, sugarcane and pulses, so these regions are densely populated.
(iii) Steps to control soil erosion in hilly areas. (1) Contour ploughing — ploughing along contour lines slows water; (2) terrace cultivation — cutting steps to restrict erosion; (3) strip cropping — grass strips between crops; (4) afforestation/shelter belts to bind the soil.
14. NCERT Exercise — Q3 Long answers (~120 words)
(i) Explain the land-use pattern in India and why land under forest has not increased much since 1960-61.
India's total geographical area is 3.28 million sq km, but land-use data covers only about 93%. Land is used for forests, land not available for cultivation (barren land, non-agricultural uses like buildings and roads), other uncultivated land (permanent pastures, tree crops, culturable waste), fallow lands (current and other fallow) and net sown area. NSA varies from over 80% in Punjab and Haryana to under 10% in many north-eastern states. Forest cover remains well below the desired 33% (National Forest Policy 1952) and has grown only marginally since 1960-61. This is because the pressure of a growing population demands more land for cultivation, settlements, roads and industry — so land shifts mainly into net sown area rather than forest.
(ii) How have technical and economic development led to more consumption of resources?
Better technology lets us extract and use resources we could not earlier — e.g. advanced machinery mines more minerals and fossil fuels, and irrigation opens up arid land. Economic development raises incomes and demand, so industries produce and people consume more. Together they increased indiscriminate consumption, causing depletion of resources, accumulation of wealth in few hands (dividing society into haves and have-nots), and ecological crises like global warming, ozone depletion and land degradation. While technology and economic growth raise living standards, unchecked consumption threatens the planet — which is why resource planning and sustainable development are essential.
15. NCERT Project/Activity puzzle (answers)
The word-search hidden answers:
- (i) Natural endowments in the form of land, water, vegetation and minerals → RESOURCES.
- (ii) A type of non-renewable resource → MINERALS (fossil fuels).
- (iii) Soil with high water-retaining capacity → BLACK soil.
- (iv) Intensively leached soils of the monsoon climate → LATERITE.
- (v) Plantation of trees on a large scale to check soil erosion → AFFORESTATION.
- (vi) The Great Plains of India are made up of these soils → ALLUVIAL.
16. Common confusions
- Bangar vs Khadar: Bangar = old alluvium (more kanker, less fertile); Khadar = new alluvium (finer, more fertile). Mnemonic: "Khadar is the newer kid".
- Renewable vs non-renewable: renewable can be reproduced (solar, forests); non-renewable take millions of years (minerals, fossil fuels). Some non-renewables are recyclable (metals) — that does not make them renewable.
- Stock vs reserves: stock = we lack the technology to use it yet (hydrogen in water); reserves = we can use it but keep it for the future (water in dams).
- Black soil vs regur vs black cotton soil — all three are the same soil.
- Cause of degradation differs by state: Punjab = over-irrigation; Rajasthan/Gujarat = overgrazing; Jharkhand/Odisha = mining deforestation. Don't mix them up.
- Sustainable development is about not harming future generations, not merely "fast growth".
17. Quick revision checklist
- Resource = technologically accessible + economically feasible + culturally acceptable; a function of human activity.
- Four classifications: origin, exhaustibility, ownership, status of development.
- Three problems of indiscriminate use: depletion, accumulation in few hands, ecological crises.
- Sustainable development → Rio Earth Summit 1992 → Agenda 21; Brundtland Report Our Common Future (1987).
- Relief: plains 43%, mountains 30%, plateaus 27%. Total area 3.28 million sq km; desired forest cover 33%.
- Six soils: alluvial, black (regur), red & yellow, laterite, arid, forest — know region, feature, crop.
- Conservation: contour ploughing, terrace cultivation, strip cropping, shelter belts, afforestation.
- Coal
- Petroleum
- Solar energy
- Natural gas
- Khadar
- Regur
- Bangar
- Laterite
- 1987
- 1968
- 1992
- 1974
- 27%
- 30%
- 43%
- 33%
- Individual resources
- Community resources
- National resources
- International resources
- Alluvial
- Black
- Laterite
- Arid
- 23%
- 33%
- 43%
- 27%
- Strip cropping
- Contour ploughing
- Terrace cultivation
- Shelter belts
- Abiotic
- Biotic
- Potential
- Stock
- Ravines/gullies (bad land)
- Sand dunes
- Shelter belts
- Terraces
Book a free demo class