Improvement in Food Resources

1. Types of Crops — Kharif vs Rabi

India grows a huge variety of crops grouped by what they provide: cereals (wheat, rice, maize, millets, sorghum — mainly carbohydrates), pulses (gram, pea, lentil — protein), oilseeds (groundnut, mustard, sesame, linseed — fats), vegetables and fruits (vitamins and minerals), and fodder crops (berseem, oats — animal feed). They are also grouped by the season of cultivation.

A third short season, Zaid (March-June), allows fast-maturing crops like watermelon, cucumber, and bitter gourd using irrigation between the two main seasons.

2. Crop Variety Improvement

The goal is to find or breed a variety that gives more food with the same inputs or survives difficult conditions. NCERT lists these key desirable traits:

• Higher yield — more food per hectare under the same growing conditions.
• Improved quality — better protein content in pulses, more oil in oilseeds, better baking quality in wheat, longer shelf-life in fruits and vegetables.
• Biotic stress resistance — resistance to diseases (fungal, bacterial, viral), insect pests, and nematodes.
• Abiotic stress tolerance — ability to withstand drought, salinity, waterlogging, heat, cold, and frost.
• Change in maturity duration — shorter maturity allows more crops in a year; uniform maturity helps mechanised harvesting.
• Wider adaptability — one variety performs well across many different environments so it can be grown nationwide.
• Desirable agronomic traits — tallness and profuse branching in fodder crops; dwarfness in cereals (dwarf plant channels energy into grain, not stem, and does not lodge when given fertiliser).

Methods of Variety Improvement

1. Hybridisation — crossing two genetically different plants to combine desired traits of both parents. Three types:

• Intervarietal hybridisation — between two different varieties of the same species. Most common in crop improvement.
• Interspecific hybridisation — between two different species of the same genus.
• Intergeneric hybridisation — between plants of two different genera (rarer; used for very specific traits).

2. Introduction of a gene — a useful gene from another organism is inserted into the crop plant using genetic engineering. The result is a Genetically Modified Organism (GMO), e.g. Bt-cotton (carries a bacterial gene giving insect resistance).

3. High Yielding Varieties (HYV) — semi-dwarf seed varieties developed during the Green Revolution (1960s-70s). These varieties responded dramatically to added fertiliser, producing 2-3 times more grain per hectare than traditional tall varieties. Dr. Norman Borlaug developed HYV wheat; Dr. M. S. Swaminathan led India's Green Revolution programme. India went from food-deficit to food-surplus in just one decade.

3. Crop Production Management

Even the best variety fails without the right nutrients, water, and cultivation practices. Production management covers three linked areas: nutrition, irrigation, and cropping patterns.

3A. Nutrients — Macro and Micro

Plants need 16 essential nutrients. Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) come from air and water. The remaining 13 come from the soil and must be replenished by farmers.

Macronutrients (6 elements — needed in large amounts):

Micronutrients (7 elements — needed in tiny amounts): Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn), Boron (B), Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu), Molybdenum (Mo), Chlorine (Cl). Deficiency of even one micronutrient causes a specific visible symptom and reduces yield, even if all macronutrients are adequate. A useful memory aid: "Fe Mn B Zn Cu Mo Cl" — "Few Men Bring Zinc, Copper, Molybdenum, Chlorine."

3B. Manure vs Fertilisers

Types of manure: (i) Compost — decomposed organic farm waste (dung, crop residue, kitchen waste) in a compost pit; (ii) Vermicompost — compost made with the help of earthworms which digest organic matter rapidly; (iii) Green manure — fast-growing plants such as sunhemp (Crotalaria juncea) or Sesbania are grown and then ploughed back into the soil before they seed, enriching nitrogen and organic matter.

Biofertilisers are living microorganisms that enrich soil naturally: Rhizobium bacteria live in root nodules of legumes and fix atmospheric N; cyanobacteria (Anabaena, Nostoc) fix N in flooded paddy fields; Azospirillum and Azotobacter fix N in the rhizosphere of non-legume crops. These reduce the need for chemical nitrogen fertilisers.

3C. Irrigation Methods

Only about 40% of India's farmland is irrigated; the rest depends on monsoon rains. Assured irrigation can double or treble crop yield. Sources and methods:

• Wells — dug wells (shallow water table) and tube wells (deep groundwater lifted by electric or diesel pumps).
• Canals — government-built channels carrying river or reservoir water across large flat areas (Indo-Gangetic Plains). Largest irrigation network in India.
• River lift systems — water pumped directly from rivers where canals are not feasible; used in peninsular India.
• Tanks — small reservoirs catching rainwater from local catchments; important in Rajasthan and peninsular India (traditional system).
• Sprinkler system — water is pumped through pipes and sprayed through rotating nozzles, simulating rain. Good for uneven terrain, sandy soils, and crops like vegetables, groundnut. Saves 30-40% water compared to flood irrigation.
• Drip (trickle) irrigation — water is delivered drop by drop through narrow plastic pipes directly to the root zone of individual plants. The most water-efficient method — saves up to 70% water. Ideal for orchards (mango, citrus), plantations, and vegetables in water-scarce regions.

3D. Cropping Patterns

1. Mixed cropping — two or more crops are grown simultaneously on the same field in a random, mixed fashion (seeds are mixed before sowing). Example: wheat + gram, wheat + mustard. Primary benefit is risk reduction: if one crop fails due to weather, pests, or disease, the farmer still harvests the other.

2. Inter-cropping — two or more crops grown simultaneously on the same field but in definite rows (e.g. 2 rows of maize then 1 row of soybean, repeating). Because rows are distinct, crops can be harvested separately. The crops have different nutrient requirements and growing habits so they do not compete — they actually complement each other. Pests and diseases of one crop cannot easily spread to the other because the rows of a different crop act as a barrier.

3. Crop rotation — different crops are grown on the same piece of land in a planned sequence across successive seasons. The key principle: rotate a leguminous crop (gram, moong, pea) with a cereal crop (wheat, paddy). Legumes have Rhizobium-containing root nodules that fix atmospheric nitrogen into the soil, naturally restoring what the previous cereal removed. Rotation also:

• Breaks pest and pathogen cycles (pests adapted to wheat die during the gram season).
• Allows 2-3 harvests per year from the same land.
• Reduces the need for chemical fertilisers.

4. Crop Protection Management

NCERT estimates that crops can lose 20-30% of their yield to pests and diseases even before harvest, and further losses occur in storage. Protection management addresses these threats systematically.

4A. Weeds

Weeds are unwanted plants that grow spontaneously among crop plants. They compete for nutrients, water, light, and space, directly reducing crop yield. Common examples: Xanthium (cocklebur), Parthenium (congress weed — also allergenic), Cyperinus rotundus (nutgrass). Weeds must be removed before they flower and set seeds, or the problem multiplies.

Control: Weedicides (herbicides) like 2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid) kill broad-leaved weeds without harming cereals. Mechanical methods include hand weeding (labour-intensive) and tilling (ploughing to uproot weeds). Mulching (covering soil with dry straw or plastic film) suppresses weed germination.

4B. Insect Pests

Insect pests damage crops in three main ways as described in NCERT:

• Cut or damage the root: cutworms sever seedlings at or just below the soil surface.
• Stem borers and leaf borers: bore tunnels through stems (e.g. Chilo partellus, stem borer of maize and paddy) cutting off nutrient and water supply.
• Sucking insects: pierce plant tissues and suck out cell sap, causing wilting, yellowing, curling. Examples: aphids, jassids (leafhoppers), whiteflies, thrips. Many also transmit viral diseases.

Control: Pesticides (insecticides) sprayed or dusted on crops; resistant varieties; biological control (e.g. releasing predatory lady-beetles against aphids); light traps to attract and kill moths.

4C. Diseases

Crop diseases are caused by pathogens:

• Fungi — rusts (wheat rust caused by Puccinia), smuts, blights (Phytophthora causes potato late blight). Spread through spores in air or soil.
• Bacteria — e.g. citrus canker (Xanthomonas citri). Spread through water and infected seed.
• Viruses — e.g. tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), yellow vein mosaic of bhindi (okra). Spread mainly by sucking insect vectors (aphids, whiteflies).

Control: Fungicides (copper oxychloride, mancozeb) sprayed on crops; disease-free certified seed; crop rotation; use of resistant varieties developed through breeding; controlling insect vectors reduces virus spread.

4D. Grain Storage Losses

NCERT emphasises that food losses continue even after harvest during storage:

• Biotic factors: insects (weevils, grain moths), rodents (rats, mice), mites, bacteria, and fungi.
• Abiotic factors: excess moisture (humidity) and high temperature accelerate fungal growth and insect breeding.

Prevention: (i) Clean and dry grain thoroughly before storage — reduce moisture content below safe limit; (ii) use fumigants such as aluminium phosphide tablets (which release phosphine gas, killing insects); (iii) store in ventilated, rodent-proof godowns or silos; (iv) use cold storage for perishables (fruits, vegetables); (v) regular inspection and quality checks.

5. Animal Husbandry — Cattle Farming

Animal husbandry is the scientific management of livestock and other farm animals, covering feeding, shelter, breeding, and disease control. India has the largest cattle population in the world, playing a vital role in food security and rural livelihoods.

5A. Types of Cattle

• Milch (dairy) animals — kept for milk. High milk yield and a long lactation period (duration from calving until milk production ceases) are the key selection criteria.
• Draught (work) animals — used for agricultural labour: ploughing, irrigation (running Persian wheels), and carting. Strong, muscular build and stamina are needed.
• Dual-purpose breeds — reasonably good for both milk and draught work.

5B. Cattle Species and Breeds

Cattle in India belong to two main species: Bos indicus (humped zebu cattle — most Indian breeds) and Bos bubalis (buffalo — major milk contributor).

Cross-breeding strategy: Exotic breeds produce large milk volumes but have low disease resistance in Indian conditions. Indian breeds are disease-resistant and hardy but produce less milk. The solution is cross-breeding — mating high-yielding exotic bulls with hardy Indian cows to get an offspring that combines the best of both. This is the cornerstone of India's dairy improvement programme (e.g. Project Crossbred Cattle).

5C. Feeding and Health Management

Cattle food is in two categories:

• Roughage — fibrous, bulk material like grass, straw, hay, and silage. Necessary for digestive health (rumen function).
• Concentrates — high-protein, high-energy feed: oilcakes (groundnut cake, cotton seed cake), grain (maize, barley), bran. Essential for milk production and growth.

Cattle also need mineral mixtures (Ca, P, Mg, trace elements) and clean drinking water. Lactating cows and working bullocks need more than dry or resting animals.

Diseases: External parasites — ticks, lice, mites on skin (treat by dipping/spraying with acaricides); Internal parasites — roundworms, tapeworms, liver flukes (treat with anthelmintic drugs); Infectious diseases — Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD, viral), Anthrax (bacterial), Haemorrhagic Septicaemia (bacterial) — controlled by vaccination and prompt veterinary treatment.

6. Poultry Farming

Poultry farming raises domestic birds for eggs (layers) and meat (broilers). It needs low initial investment, has a short production cycle (chickens mature in 6-8 weeks for meat; layers produce for a year+), and gives high returns. It is among the fastest-growing agri sectors in India.

6A. Poultry Breeds

• Indigenous breeds — e.g. Aseel, Basra, Chittagong. Hardy and adapted to local weather; but low productivity (60-70 eggs/year, slow growth).
• Exotic (foreign) breeds — e.g. Leghorn (outstanding layer — 250-300 eggs/year), Rhode Island Red, Plymouth Rock (dual-purpose), White Cornish (good meat). High productivity but need controlled environment and better nutrition.
• Hybrid varieties — crosses such as HH-260, B-77 developed by poultry research institutes. Combine local adaptability with exotic productivity.

6B. Management Practices

• Housing: clean, ventilated poultry houses with adequate space (2-3 birds/sq ft for layers); litter management (rice husk or sawdust on floor) absorbs moisture and droppings.
• Feed: balanced diet of carbohydrates (maize, wheat bran), proteins (fish meal, soybean), vitamins, and minerals. Broiler feed is higher in energy and protein to promote rapid muscle growth. Layer feed is balanced for sustained egg production.
• Hygiene: regular disinfection of water troughs and feeders; proper disposal of dead birds; rodent control.
• Disease control: Ranikhet disease (Newcastle disease — viral, very contagious, high mortality; controlled by vaccination), Marek's disease (viral; vaccine given at hatchery), Fowl pox (viral; vaccine), Salmonellosis (bacterial; hygiene + antibiotics). Biosecurity (restricting entry of people and vehicles into poultry houses) is critical.

7. Fish Production

Fish provides the cheapest source of animal protein and is rich in omega-3 fatty acids, vitamins (D, B12), and minerals (iodine). Fish production includes finfish (true fish) and shell fish (prawns, lobsters, crabs, oysters, mussels). India has a long coastline (~7,500 km) and vast inland water resources.

7A. Capture Fishery

Fish are caught from their natural water bodies; no rearing is done by humans.

• Marine (sea) fishery — fishing in coastal waters and the deep ocean. Important fish: Pomfret, Mackerel, Tuna, Sardines, Bombay duck. Modern mechanised boats use echo sounders (sonar-based fish finders) and satellite technology to locate shoals. Common methods: purse-seine nets (encircle a shoal) and trawling (large drag net).
• Inland fishery — from rivers, lakes, ponds, canals, and reservoirs. Important fish: Catla, Rohu, Mrigal (Indian major carps), Common carp, Silver carp (introduced carps).

7B. Culture Fishery (Aquaculture)

Fish are reared in controlled water bodies with managed feeding, breeding, and health care. Much higher and more reliable yields than capture fishing.

• Mariculture — marine aquaculture. Prawns, oysters, mussels, lobsters, and seaweed are reared in sea cages, coastal ponds, or ropes. Pearl oysters produce pearls. Seaweed farming is growing rapidly.
• Composite fish culture (polyculture) — five to six fish species with different feeding preferences are stocked together in the same pond. No food competition; all available food in the pond is exploited. Species combination:

8. Bee-keeping (Apiculture)

Apiculture is the practice of rearing and maintaining honey bee colonies in artificial hives (boxes) to collect honey and beeswax. It requires very low investment and can be practised on the farmer's own land alongside crops, providing additional income. A critical ecological bonus: bees pollinate crops, increasing fruit-set and crop yield — especially in orchards and oilseed crops.

8A. Honey Bee Species Used

8B. Bee Colony Structure

• Queen — one per colony; the only reproductive female; lays up to 2,000 eggs/day; lives 2-5 years.
• Worker bees — thousands of sterile females; collect nectar and pollen, produce honey, make wax, guard the hive, and nurse larvae. Live only 6-8 weeks (summer).
• Drones — fertile males; sole function is to mate with the queen; die soon after mating; ejected from hive before winter.

8C. Pasturage — The Key to Honey Quality

Pasturage refers to the flowers available to bees in the vicinity of the hive for nectar and pollen collection. The quantity and quality of honey depend directly on pasturage: more diverse, abundant flowers mean more honey with better flavour. When mustard, litchi, jamun, sunflower, or coconut are flowering nearby, honey yield and taste improve distinctly. NCERT stresses that bee-keeping should ideally be combined with farming to ensure rich pasturage and mutual benefit (bees pollinate crops; flowers feed bees).

8D. Products of Bee-keeping

• Honey — antimicrobial, high-energy food; used medicinally and in confectionery.
• Beeswax — used in candles, cosmetics, shoe polish, pharmaceutical ointments, and batik wax-printing.
• Royal jelly — secretion fed to queen larvae; used in cosmetics and health supplements.
• Propolis — resinous substance bees collect from plants; has antibacterial properties; used in herbal medicine.
• Bee venom — used in apitherapy; research on arthritis treatment.