Electoral Politics

1. Why do we need elections?

In a representative democracy, it is impossible for all citizens to directly participate in every decision of the government. Elections solve this problem — they allow people to choose their representatives who then govern on their behalf.

Elections serve several critical purposes:

• Accountability: Rulers must return to the people periodically for renewal of their mandate. If they perform poorly, voters can vote them out.
• Choice: Citizens can select among competing candidates and parties, each offering different policies and visions.
• Legitimacy: A government that wins through free and fair elections is widely accepted as having the right to govern.
• Peaceful change: Elections allow a change of government without violence or revolution — power transfers through votes, not force.

The NCERT chapter uses the 2004 Indian general elections as an opening example. The ruling NDA coalition — widely expected to win on the "India Shining" campaign — was unexpectedly defeated by the Congress-led UPA. Power transferred peacefully within days. This demonstrates the power of elections: even strong incumbents can be removed, and the transition happens without crisis.

A minimum essential feature of democracy is that rulers are elected by the people. But not every election qualifies as democratic. A dictator can also hold elections with only one candidate or a rigged outcome. What makes elections truly democratic is explored in section 3.

2. Types of elections in India

India conducts elections at three levels of government:

Key distinctions to remember:

• General (Lok Sabha) elections: held to elect all 543 members of the Lok Sabha simultaneously. The President dissolves the Lok Sabha and elections are announced. The elected representative from each constituency is called a Member of Parliament (MP).
• State Assembly elections: each state elects its Vidhan Sabha separately, often at different times. The elected representative is called a Member of Legislative Assembly (MLA).
• By-elections (upchunav): held to fill a single vacant seat when a member dies, resigns, or is disqualified. Only voters of that one constituency participate.
• Mid-term elections: called when a government loses its majority before the 5-year term ends and the house is dissolved. The entire house votes afresh.

For Lok Sabha elections, the country is divided into 543 constituencies — one MP is elected from each. The process of dividing the country into constituencies of roughly equal population is called delimitation, carried out by the Delimitation Commission.

Reserved seats: The Constitution provides for reserved constituencies for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) to ensure their representation, since open competition might disadvantage them. Additionally, one-third of local body seats are reserved for women.

3. What makes an election democratic?

Not every election is democratic. The NCERT identifies the following essential conditions for a genuinely democratic election:

3.1 Universal Adult Franchise

Every citizen who has attained the age of 18 years has the right to vote, regardless of caste, religion, gender, income, education, or social status. India adopted this from its very first general election in 1951-52 — remarkable at a time when many democracies still restricted voting by income or gender.

• Guaranteed under Article 326 of the Constitution.
• All voters must be registered in the Electoral Roll (voters' list), updated periodically.
• The Election Photo Identity Card (EPIC) helps prevent bogus voting.

3.2 Free and Fair Elections

Citizens must be able to choose freely — without coercion, bribery, or intimidation. This requires:

• An independent authority (the ECI) to conduct elections without government interference.
• Voters must not be pressured or bribed to vote for any particular party.
• A level playing field for all parties and candidates — equal opportunity to campaign.
• Freedom of speech and assembly during campaigns.

3.3 Secret Ballot

Each voter's choice must be kept confidential. Nobody — not the candidate, not the employer, not family — should know how an individual voted. This prevents intimidation and vote-buying. In India, Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) allow voters to press a button privately in the voting booth.

3.4 Genuine Choice Among Candidates

Voters must have a real choice — multiple candidates or parties genuinely competing for power. An election with only one candidate or where opposition is banned is not democratic.

3.5 Regular Elections

Elections must be held periodically (in India, every 5 years) so voters can assess the government's performance and renew or withdraw their mandate.

4. Election Commission of India — role, powers, and Model Code of Conduct

4.1 Constitutional Status

The Election Commission of India (ECI) is established by Article 324 of the Indian Constitution. It is an autonomous constitutional body — it does not work under any ministry or government department. This independence is essential: if the ruling party could control the election machinery, elections would be unfair.

• Headed by the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC), assisted by Election Commissioners.
• The CEC is appointed by the President, but once appointed can only be removed by impeachment by Parliament — just like a Supreme Court judge. This insulates the CEC from executive pressure.

4.2 Powers and Functions of the ECI

• Announces election schedule — sets dates for nominations, polling, and counting.
• Recognises political parties and allots them election symbols.
• Implements Model Code of Conduct for all parties and candidates.
• Supervises and controls election machinery — government officers involved in elections work under ECI directions.
• Transfers government officials suspected of favouring the ruling party.
• Deploys security forces to polling stations to prevent intimidation.
• Cancels polling if booth capturing or malpractice occurs and orders re-polling.
• Enforces spending limits — each candidate has a ceiling on campaign expenditure.
• Can disqualify candidates and withdraw party symbols for rule violations.

4.3 Model Code of Conduct (MCC)

The Model Code of Conduct comes into force immediately when the ECI announces the election schedule and remains in effect until results are declared. Key provisions:

• The government cannot announce new policies, projects, or schemes that could influence voters ("freebies" are banned during this period).
• Government machinery (officials, vehicles, government buildings) cannot be used for party campaigning.
• No party or candidate can use religion, caste, or community to seek votes or divide voters.
• Candidates must submit accounts of election expenses to the ECI.
• No bribery or intimidation of voters is permitted.
• All campaign activities must stop 48 hours before polling (the "campaign silence" period) so voters can reflect without last-minute unverifiable claims.

The MCC is enforced by the ECI through its constitutional powers. Violations can lead to disqualification of candidates or withdrawal of party recognition.

5. The Electoral Process — step by step

Step 1 — Announcement of Elections

The ECI announces the election schedule — dates for filing nominations, scrutiny, withdrawal, polling, and counting. The Model Code of Conduct comes into force immediately upon this announcement.

Step 2 — Filing of Nominations

Any citizen who meets the eligibility criteria can contest by filing a nomination paper:

• Must be an Indian citizen, at least 25 years old for Lok Sabha or Vidhan Sabha.
• Must not have been convicted of a crime with imprisonment of 2 or more years.
• Must not hold any office of profit under the government.
• Must pay a security deposit (Rs 25,000 for Lok Sabha for general candidates; forfeited if they get less than one-sixth of total valid votes).
• Must file an affidavit declaring criminal record, assets, liabilities, and educational qualifications — voters have the right to this information.

Step 3 — Scrutiny and Withdrawal

The Returning Officer scrutinises nomination papers. Candidates who find they have little support can withdraw voluntarily up to a specified date, narrowing the final list.

Step 4 — Election Campaign

During the campaign period, candidates and parties try to persuade voters through:

• Rallies and public meetings — large gatherings addressed by party leaders.
• Door-to-door canvassing — candidates personally meet voters.
• Media advertising — posters, banners, TV/radio ads, and social media.
• Party manifestos — written documents outlining promises and policies.

Campaigns must stop 48 hours before polling day. This prevents last-minute unverifiable claims and gives voters time to reflect.

Step 5 — Polling Day

Voters go to their designated polling booth and cast their vote:

• Each voter's name is checked against the Electoral Roll; indelible ink is applied to the left index finger to prevent double voting.
• Voters use an EVM (Electronic Voting Machine) — pressing a button next to their chosen candidate's name and symbol.
• The NOTA (None of the Above) option lets voters reject all candidates.
• Polling agents (representatives of each candidate) observe from inside the booth to ensure fairness.
• Central security forces are deployed at sensitive booths; CCTV cameras are installed.

Step 6 — Counting of Votes

EVMs are sealed after polling and kept under guard. On counting day, votes are tallied in the presence of candidates and their counting agents. The candidate with the highest number of votes wins. The Returning Officer issues a certificate of election to the winner.

6. The Electoral System — First Past the Post (FPTP)

India uses the First Past the Post (FPTP) system, also called the Simple Plurality System:

• Each constituency elects one representative.
• Each voter votes for one candidate.
• The candidate with the most votes wins — even without an absolute majority (more than 50%).
• Just more votes than anyone else is sufficient to win.

FPTP in action — example

Suppose four candidates contest a constituency:

Candidate A wins with only 35% of votes — 65% voted against them. This is the defining characteristic of FPTP.

Merits of FPTP

• Simple to understand — voters just choose one candidate; no complex ranking needed.
• Stable government — tends to give a single party or coalition a clear majority, enabling decisive governance.
• Direct link between voters and their representative — each constituency knows exactly who represents them.
• Works well in diverse countries — used by India, UK, USA, Canada.

Demerits of FPTP

• Votes can be wasted — votes for losing candidates do not translate into representation.
• Disproportionate results — a party with 35% of national votes may win a large majority of seats; another with 30% may win far fewer seats.
• Small parties suffer — parties with spread-out support may get many votes but very few seats.

Despite these drawbacks, the Constituent Assembly chose FPTP for India because it was simple enough for a largely illiterate population in 1952, and it ensured a direct, accountable link between a specific representative and a local constituency.

7. Challenges to free and fair elections

The NCERT candidly discusses challenges that threaten the integrity of Indian elections:

7.1 Money Power

Elections are expensive. Candidates spend on rallies, advertising, and — illegally — on bribing voters.

• Wealthy candidates have an enormous advantage over honest candidates with fewer resources.
• Despite spending limits set by ECI, many candidates spend far more through unofficial channels.
• Candidates who spend heavily are often in debt to donors and later favour those donors over public interest once elected.
• Vote-buying — distributing cash, liquor, or gifts to voters — is a widespread illegal practice.

7.2 Muscle Power (Criminalisation of Politics)

• Candidates with criminal records have become increasingly common — they use hired muscle to intimidate voters and rivals.
• Once elected, they use political power to protect their criminal interests — a vicious cycle that is hard to break.
• Mandatory affidavit disclosure of criminal cases was introduced to let voters make informed choices.

7.3 Booth Capturing

Booth capturing occurs when armed groups take over a polling booth, drive away legitimate voters, and cast fake votes. It was a serious problem especially in the 1980s-90s. The ECI has countered it with:

• Deployment of central paramilitary forces at sensitive booths.
• CCTV cameras and webcasting from polling stations.
• Authority to cancel results and hold re-polling where capturing occurred.

7.4 Other Challenges

• Caste and religion appeals — parties appeal on caste/religious lines rather than policy performance, fragmenting society.
• Misuse of government machinery by the ruling party — which the MCC tries to prevent.
• Hate speech and misinformation — spreading false information about rivals or inciting communal tensions.
• Low urban voter turnout — despite high education, many urban voters do not vote.

8. Outcomes of elections — government formation and peaceful transfer of power

After counting, results determine who forms the government:

• In the Lok Sabha: the party or coalition commanding a majority (at least 272 of 543 seats) is invited by the President to form the government. Its leader becomes Prime Minister.
• If no single party wins a majority, parties form a coalition and elect a common leader as PM.
• In Vidhan Sabhas: the majority party/coalition leader becomes Chief Minister.

Peaceful Transfer of Power

One of the most impressive features of Indian democracy is the peaceful transfer of power after elections. Even when strong ruling governments are voted out — as in 1977 (Indira Gandhi's Congress lost post-Emergency), 1989, 1996, and 2004 — power changes hands without violence. The outgoing government vacates office and the new government is sworn in.

The NCERT highlights the 2004 election: the NDA's "India Shining" campaign led polls to predict victory. However, the UPA won more seats. Within days, Manmohan Singh was sworn in as Prime Minister — peacefully, without constitutional crisis. This demonstrates the maturity and resilience of Indian democratic institutions.

Are Indian elections fair? Weighing the evidence

Evidence that elections ARE fair and democratic:

• The ruling party and powerful incumbents are regularly voted out — showing genuine voter choice.
• An independent ECI has taken bold action against powerful politicians and ruling party violators.
• Low-income and rural voters participate at higher rates than wealthy urban voters — the franchise genuinely reaches those who need representation most.
• India has produced surprise election outcomes that no systematically rigged system could generate.

Remaining problems: money and muscle still matter; voters with criminal backgrounds get elected; casteism and communalism influence voting. On balance, the NCERT concludes that while serious problems exist, India's elections are substantially free and fair, and democratic accountability genuinely operates.

9. Solved NCERT Questions